Alien predation in wetlands – the Raccoon Dog and water birds breeding success
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.46490/vol25iss2pp228Abstract
Alien predators are known to potentially strongly affect their prey populations. We studied the impact of raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides) on waterbird breeding success in eight semi-urban wetlands in Finland. We manipulated raccoon dog density in two wetlands by removing individuals (2002 protection year, 2003 and 2004 removal years). We additionally performed nest predation experiments. We monitored raccoon dog density, estimated hunting bag size and observed waterbird breeding success. Our hypothesis predicts that the omnivorous raccoon dog plays a role in waterbird breeding success by depredating nests. Our experiments shown that the raccoon dog hunting bag in eutrophic wetlands may be large, as we removed 8.6–20.0 animals per km2. Both our nest predation experiment and field data indicated that raccoon dogs affect the breeding success of waterbirds. We found a significant relationship between raccoon dog density index and predation rate of the artificial nests, but not between red fox (Vulpes vulpes) density and predation on artificial nests. We did not find an association between raccoon dog abundance and the breeding success of mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) and great crested grebes (Podiceps cristatus). However, our study shows that birds species with different breeding strategies – e.g. great crested grebe, mute swan (Cygnus olor), mallard, Eurasian wigeon (Mareca penelope), coot (Fulica atra), lapwing (Vanellus vanellus) and marsh harrier (Circus aeruginosus) – when considered together showed higher breeding success both in 2003 and 2004 when compared to breeding success before removal. There was, however, variation in how strongly the species responded to raccoon dog removal. Our results indicate that the removal of alien raccoon dogs can be an important tool in wetland management.
Keywords: ducks, invasive species, lapwing, nest predation experiment, Nyctereutes procyonoides, predator removal
References
Banks, P.B. and Dickman, C.R. 2007. Alien predation and the effects of multiple levels of prey naiveté. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 22: 230-231.
Berg, A., Lindberg, T. and Kallebring, K.G. 1992. Hatching success of lapwings on farmlands. differences between habitats and colonies of different sizes. Journal of Animal Ecology 61: 469-476.
Bern Convention 2009. Recommendation No 139. 2009. of the Standing Committee, examined on 26 November 2009, on the control of the raccoon dog Nyctereutes procyonoides in Europe. Council of Europe.
Blackburn, T.M., Cassey, P., Duncan, R.P., Evans, K.L. and Caston, K.J. 2004. Avian extinction and mammalian introductions in oceanic islands. Science 305: 1955-1958.
Bodey, T.W., Bearhop, S. and McDonald, R.A. 2011. Localised control of an introduced predator. creating problems for the future? Biological Invasions 13:2817-2828.
Bolton, M., Tyler, G., Smith, K. and Bamford, R. 2007. The impact of predator control on Lapwing Vanellus vanellus breeding success on wet grassland nature reserves. Journal of Applied Ecology 44: 534-544.
Carpio, A. J., Castro-Caro, J. C. and Tortosa, F. S. 2016. Influence of nest density on nest predation depends on habitat features. Ardeola 6: 237-250.
Čížková, H., Květ, J., Comín, F.A., Laiho, R., Pokorný, J. and Pithart, D. 2013. Actual state of European wetlands and their possible future in the context of global climate change. Aquatic Sciences 75: 3-26.
Cooper, J., Marais, A.V.N., Bollomer, J.P. and Bester, M.N. 1995. A success story. breeding burrowing petrels (Procellariidae) before and after the eradication of feral cats Felis catus at subantarctic Marion Island. Marine Ornithology 23: 33-37.
Courchamp, F., Langlais, M., Sugihara, G. 1999. Control of rabbits to protect island birds from cat predation. Biological Conservation 89: 219-225.
Courchamp, F., Chapuis, J-L. and Pascal, M. 2003. Mammal invaders on islands. Impact, control and control impact. Biological Reviews 78: 347-383.
Dahl, F. and Åhlen, P.A. 2016. Egg predation by raccoon dog Nyctereutes procyonoides in the archipelago of northern Sweden. In The XVI Nordic Congress of Wildlife Research Transdisciplinary Wildlife Management (ed. Ruusila, V. and Pellikka, J.). Natural resources and bioeconomy studies 21. 25. Natural Resources Institute Finland.
Doherty, T.S., Dickman, C.R., Nimmo, D.G. and Ritchie, E.G. 2015. Multiple threats, or multiplying the threats? Interactions between invasive predators and other ecological disturbances. Biological Conservation 190: 60-68.
Elliot, R.D. 1985. The exclusion of avian predators from aggregations of nesting lapwings (Vanellus vanellus). Animal Behavior 33: 308-314.
Ellis-Felege, S N., Carrol, J.P., Condroy, M.J., Palmer, W.E. and Sission, D.C. 2007. Shifts in nest predation risk of northern bobwhites as a result of meso-mammalian predator removal in the Southeastern, USA. In Books of abstracts. 110. International Union of Game Biologists XXVIII Congress 13.–18 August 2007 Uppsala, Sweden.
Eronen, V. 2007. Diet of raccoon dog in the wetlands of Uusimaa (Southern Finland).
Unpublished graduate thesis in Wildlife Biology, University of Helsinki (in Finnish).
European Union. 2017. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/pdf/IAS_brochure_species.pdf
Fox, A.D., Caizergues, A., Banik, M.V., Devos, K., Dvorak, M., Ellermaa, M., Folliot, B., Green, A.J., Grüneberg, C., Guillemain, M., Håland, A., Hornman., M., Keller, V, Koshelev, A.,I,, Kostiushyn, V.,A, Kozulin, A. ławick, ł., Luigujõe, L., Müller, C., Musil, P., Musilová, Z., Nilsson, L., Mischenko, A., Pöysä, H., Šcˇiban, M., Sjenicˇic´, J., Sti I¯pniece, A., Švažas, S. and Wahl, J. 2016. Recent changes in the abundance of Common Pochard Aythya ferina breeding in Europe. Wildfowl 66: 22-40.
Hario, M. 2002. Mink predation on black guillemots at Söderskär in 1994-1999.
Suomen Riista 48: 18-26 (in Finnish with English summary).
Helle, E. and Kauhala, K. 1991. Distribution history and present status of the raccoon dog in Finland. Holarctic Ecology 14: 278-286.
Jokimäki, J. and Huhta, E. 2000. Artificial nest predation and abundance of birds along and urban gradient. The Condor 102: 838-847.
Kauhala, K. 1994. The raccoon dog a successful canid. Canid News 2: 37-41.
Kauhala, K. 2004. Removal of medium-size predators and the success of ducks in
Finland. Folia Zoologica 53: 367-378.
Kauhala, K. 2009. Diet of the omnivorous raccoon dog in Europe and in the Far East. Suomen Riista 55: 45-62 (in Finnish with English summary).
Kauhala, K., Helle, E. and Helle, P. 2000. Predator control and the density and reproductive success of grouse populations in Finland. Ecography 23: 161-168.
Kauhala, K. and Auniola, M. 2001. Diet of raccoon dogs in summer in the Finnish
archipelago. Ecography 24: 151-156.
Kauhala, K., Holmala, K., Lammers, W. and Schregel, J. 2006. Home ranges and densities of medium-sized carnivores in south-east Finland, with special reference to rabies spread. Acta Theriologica 51: 1-13.
Kauhala, K. and Winter, M. 2006. Raccoon dog fact sheet. DAISIE. http.//www.europe-aliens.org/pdf/Nyctereutes_procyonoides.pdf. Accessed 15 January 2013.
Keitt, B.S. and Tershy, B.R. 2003. Cat eradication significantly decreases shearwater mortality. Animal Conservation 6: 307-308.
Korpimäki, E. 2004. Petojen vaikutus pienriistakantoihin. In: P. Nummi and V-M. Väänänen (eds.). Jahtimailla 2: 30-35. Weilin+Göös, Porvoo, (in Finnish).
Koskimies, P. and Väisänen, R.A. 1998. Monitoring bird populations in Finland. a manual. Helsingin yliopiston eläinmuseo (in Finnish with English summary).
Lehikoinen, A., Rintala, J., Lammi., E. and Pöysä, H. 2016. Habitat-specific population trajectories in boreal waterbirds: alarming trends and bioindicators for wetlands. Animal Conservation 19: 88-95.
Leivo, M., Asanti, T., Koskimies, P., Lammi, E., Lampolahti, J., Mikkola-Roos, M. and Virolainen, E. 2002. Finnish important bird areas FINIBA. BirdLife Finland’s conservation publication 4 (in Finnish).
Lindhart, S. and Knowlton, F. 1975. Determining the relative abundance of coyotes by scent station lines. Wildlife Society Bulletin 3: 119-124.
Lloyd, P. 2007. Predator control, mesopredator release, and impacts on birds nesting success. a field test. African Zoology 42: 180-186.
Luke 2016. http://stat.luke.fi/mets%C3%A4stys-ja-pienriistasaalis-2016_fi
Marchand, M.N. and Litvaitis, J.A. 2004. Effects of landscape composition, habitat features, and nest distribution on predation rate of simulated turtle nests. Biological Conservation 117: 243-251.
Marcström, V., Kenward, R.E. and Engren, E. 1988. The impact of predation on boreal tetraonids during vole cycles. An experimental study. Journal of Animal Ecology 57: 859-872.
Mayfield, H. 1961. Nesting success calculated from exposure. The Wilson Bulletin 73: 255-261.
Meckstroth, A.M. and Miles, K. 2005. Predator removal and nesting waterbird success at San Fransisco bay, California. Waterbirds 28: 250-255.
Medina, F.M., Bonnaud, E., Vidal, E., Tershy, B.R., Zavaleta, E.S., Donlan, C.J., Keitt, B.S., Le Corre, M., Horwath, S.V. and Nogales, M. 2011. A global review of the impacts of invasive cats on island endangered vertebrates. Global Change Biology 17: 3503-3510.
Mikkola-Roos, M. and Yrjölä, R. 2000. Viikki - Helsingin Vanhankaupunginlahden historiaa ja luontoa. Tammi, Helsinki (in Finnish).
Naaber, J. 1974. Rebane ja kährikkoer meie looduses. In: G. Merisalu (ed.). Jaht ja Ulukid. Eesti NSV jahimeeste seltsi aastaraamat 1969–1972: 102-115. Eesti Jahimeeste Selts, Tallinn (in Estonian).
Newsome, T.M., Dellinger, J.A., Pavey, C.R., Ripple, W.J., Shores, C.R., Wirsing, A.J. and Dickman, C.R. 2015. The ecological effects of providing resource subsidies to predators. Global Ecology and Biogeography 24: 1-11.
Nogales, M., Martín, A., Tershy, B.R., Donlan, C.J., Veitch, D., Puerta, N., Wood, B. and Alonso, J. 2004. A review of feral cat eradication on islands. Conservation Biology 18: 310-319.
Nordström, M., Högmander, J., Nummelin, J., Laine, J., Laanetu, N. and Korpimäki, E.
2002. Variable responses of waterfowl breeding populations to long-term removal of
introduced American mink. Ecography 25: 385-394.
Nordström, M., Högmander, J., Laine, J., Nummelin, J., Laanetu, N. and Korpimäki, E.
2003. Effects of feral mink removal on seabirds, waders and passerines on small
islands in the Baltic Sea. Biological Conservation 109: 359-368.
Nordström, M. and Korpimaki, E. 2004. Effects of island isolation and feral mink removal on bird communities on small islands in the Baltic Sea. Journal of Animal Ecology 73: 424-433.
Nummi, P. and Pöysä, H. 1995. Breeding success of ducks in relation to different habitat factors. Ibis 137: 145-150.
Nurmi, J. 2004. Tulokaspetopyyntiä pääkaupunkiseudun lintuvesillä. Metsästäjä 2/2004: 20-24 (in Finnish).
Osara, M. 2002. Pienpetojen metsästys ja luonnonsuojelu. Jahti 2/2002: 4 (in Finnish).
Pirkola, M.K. and Högmander, J. 1974. The age determination of duck broods in the field. Suomen Riista 25: 50-55 (in Finnish with English summary).
Pöysä, H., Wikman, M., Lammi, E. and Väisänen, R.A. 2009. Vesilinnut 2009, runsaus ja poikastuotto. http.//www.rktl.fi/riista/riistavarat/vesilinnut.html (in Finnish). Accessed 4 December 2009.
Russell, J.C. and, Holmes, N.D. 2015. Tropical island conservation. Rat eradication for species recovery. Biological Conservation 185: 1-7.
Salo, P,, Kopimäki, E., Banks, P.B., Nordström, M. and Dickman, C.R. 2007. Alien predators are more dangerous than native predators to prey populations. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 274: 1237-1243.
Seymour, A.S., Harris, S., Ralston, C. and White, P.C.L. 2003. Factors influencing the nesting success of Lapwings Vanellus Vanellus and behaviour of red fox Vulpes vulpes in Lapwings nesting sites. Bird Study 50: 39-46.
Smith, R.K., Pullin, A.S., Stewart, C.B. and Sutherland, W.J. 2010. Effectiveness of Predator Removal for Enhancing Bird Populations. Conservation Biology 24: 820-829.
Sorace, A. and Gustin, M. 2009. Distribution of generalist and specialist predators along urban gradients. Landscape and Urban Planning 90: 111-118.
Tiainen, J., Mikkola-Roos, M., Below, A., Jukarainen, A., Lehikoinen, A., Lehtiniemi, T., Pessa, J., Rajasärkkä, A,, Rintala, J., Sirkiä, P. and Valkama, J. 2016. Suomen lintujen uhanalaisuus 2015 – The 2015 Red List of Finnish Bird Species. http://environment.fi/redlist/2015birdsandmammals
Towns, D.R., Atkinson, I.A.E., Daugherty, C.H. 2006. Have the harmful effects of introduced rats on islands been exaggerated? Biological Invasions 8: 863-891.
Valkama, J., Currie, D. and Korpimäki, E. 1999. Differences in the intensity of nest predation in the Curlew Numenius arquata. A consequence of land use and predator densities? Ecoscience 6: 497-504.
Viksne, J., Nednis, A., Janaus, M. and Stipniece, A. 2005. Changes in the breeding bird fauna, waterbird populations in particular, on lake Engure (Latvia) over the last 50 years. Acta Zoologica Lituanica 15: 188-194.
Väänänen, V-M. 2000. Predation risk associated with nesting in gull colonies by two Aythya species. Observations and an experimental test. Journal of Avian Biology 31: 31-35.
Väänänen, V-M., Pöysä, H. and Runko, P. 2016. Nest and brood stage association between ducks and small colonial gulls in boreal wetlands. Ornis Fennica 93: 55-66.
White, G., Purps, J. and Alsburry, S. 2006. The Bittern in Europe. a guide to species and habitat management. The RSPB, Sandy, Bedfordshire, UK.
Berg, A., Lindberg, T. and Kallebring, K.G. 1992. Hatching success of lapwings on farmlands. differences between habitats and colonies of different sizes. Journal of Animal Ecology 61: 469-476.
Bern Convention 2009. Recommendation No 139. 2009. of the Standing Committee, examined on 26 November 2009, on the control of the raccoon dog Nyctereutes procyonoides in Europe. Council of Europe.
Blackburn, T.M., Cassey, P., Duncan, R.P., Evans, K.L. and Caston, K.J. 2004. Avian extinction and mammalian introductions in oceanic islands. Science 305: 1955-1958.
Bodey, T.W., Bearhop, S. and McDonald, R.A. 2011. Localised control of an introduced predator. creating problems for the future? Biological Invasions 13:2817-2828.
Bolton, M., Tyler, G., Smith, K. and Bamford, R. 2007. The impact of predator control on Lapwing Vanellus vanellus breeding success on wet grassland nature reserves. Journal of Applied Ecology 44: 534-544.
Carpio, A. J., Castro-Caro, J. C. and Tortosa, F. S. 2016. Influence of nest density on nest predation depends on habitat features. Ardeola 6: 237-250.
Čížková, H., Květ, J., Comín, F.A., Laiho, R., Pokorný, J. and Pithart, D. 2013. Actual state of European wetlands and their possible future in the context of global climate change. Aquatic Sciences 75: 3-26.
Cooper, J., Marais, A.V.N., Bollomer, J.P. and Bester, M.N. 1995. A success story. breeding burrowing petrels (Procellariidae) before and after the eradication of feral cats Felis catus at subantarctic Marion Island. Marine Ornithology 23: 33-37.
Courchamp, F., Langlais, M., Sugihara, G. 1999. Control of rabbits to protect island birds from cat predation. Biological Conservation 89: 219-225.
Courchamp, F., Chapuis, J-L. and Pascal, M. 2003. Mammal invaders on islands. Impact, control and control impact. Biological Reviews 78: 347-383.
Dahl, F. and Åhlen, P.A. 2016. Egg predation by raccoon dog Nyctereutes procyonoides in the archipelago of northern Sweden. In The XVI Nordic Congress of Wildlife Research Transdisciplinary Wildlife Management (ed. Ruusila, V. and Pellikka, J.). Natural resources and bioeconomy studies 21. 25. Natural Resources Institute Finland.
Doherty, T.S., Dickman, C.R., Nimmo, D.G. and Ritchie, E.G. 2015. Multiple threats, or multiplying the threats? Interactions between invasive predators and other ecological disturbances. Biological Conservation 190: 60-68.
Elliot, R.D. 1985. The exclusion of avian predators from aggregations of nesting lapwings (Vanellus vanellus). Animal Behavior 33: 308-314.
Ellis-Felege, S N., Carrol, J.P., Condroy, M.J., Palmer, W.E. and Sission, D.C. 2007. Shifts in nest predation risk of northern bobwhites as a result of meso-mammalian predator removal in the Southeastern, USA. In Books of abstracts. 110. International Union of Game Biologists XXVIII Congress 13.–18 August 2007 Uppsala, Sweden.
Eronen, V. 2007. Diet of raccoon dog in the wetlands of Uusimaa (Southern Finland).
Unpublished graduate thesis in Wildlife Biology, University of Helsinki (in Finnish).
European Union. 2017. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/pdf/IAS_brochure_species.pdf
Fox, A.D., Caizergues, A., Banik, M.V., Devos, K., Dvorak, M., Ellermaa, M., Folliot, B., Green, A.J., Grüneberg, C., Guillemain, M., Håland, A., Hornman., M., Keller, V, Koshelev, A.,I,, Kostiushyn, V.,A, Kozulin, A. ławick, ł., Luigujõe, L., Müller, C., Musil, P., Musilová, Z., Nilsson, L., Mischenko, A., Pöysä, H., Šcˇiban, M., Sjenicˇic´, J., Sti I¯pniece, A., Švažas, S. and Wahl, J. 2016. Recent changes in the abundance of Common Pochard Aythya ferina breeding in Europe. Wildfowl 66: 22-40.
Hario, M. 2002. Mink predation on black guillemots at Söderskär in 1994-1999.
Suomen Riista 48: 18-26 (in Finnish with English summary).
Helle, E. and Kauhala, K. 1991. Distribution history and present status of the raccoon dog in Finland. Holarctic Ecology 14: 278-286.
Jokimäki, J. and Huhta, E. 2000. Artificial nest predation and abundance of birds along and urban gradient. The Condor 102: 838-847.
Kauhala, K. 1994. The raccoon dog a successful canid. Canid News 2: 37-41.
Kauhala, K. 2004. Removal of medium-size predators and the success of ducks in
Finland. Folia Zoologica 53: 367-378.
Kauhala, K. 2009. Diet of the omnivorous raccoon dog in Europe and in the Far East. Suomen Riista 55: 45-62 (in Finnish with English summary).
Kauhala, K., Helle, E. and Helle, P. 2000. Predator control and the density and reproductive success of grouse populations in Finland. Ecography 23: 161-168.
Kauhala, K. and Auniola, M. 2001. Diet of raccoon dogs in summer in the Finnish
archipelago. Ecography 24: 151-156.
Kauhala, K., Holmala, K., Lammers, W. and Schregel, J. 2006. Home ranges and densities of medium-sized carnivores in south-east Finland, with special reference to rabies spread. Acta Theriologica 51: 1-13.
Kauhala, K. and Winter, M. 2006. Raccoon dog fact sheet. DAISIE. http.//www.europe-aliens.org/pdf/Nyctereutes_procyonoides.pdf. Accessed 15 January 2013.
Keitt, B.S. and Tershy, B.R. 2003. Cat eradication significantly decreases shearwater mortality. Animal Conservation 6: 307-308.
Korpimäki, E. 2004. Petojen vaikutus pienriistakantoihin. In: P. Nummi and V-M. Väänänen (eds.). Jahtimailla 2: 30-35. Weilin+Göös, Porvoo, (in Finnish).
Koskimies, P. and Väisänen, R.A. 1998. Monitoring bird populations in Finland. a manual. Helsingin yliopiston eläinmuseo (in Finnish with English summary).
Lehikoinen, A., Rintala, J., Lammi., E. and Pöysä, H. 2016. Habitat-specific population trajectories in boreal waterbirds: alarming trends and bioindicators for wetlands. Animal Conservation 19: 88-95.
Leivo, M., Asanti, T., Koskimies, P., Lammi, E., Lampolahti, J., Mikkola-Roos, M. and Virolainen, E. 2002. Finnish important bird areas FINIBA. BirdLife Finland’s conservation publication 4 (in Finnish).
Lindhart, S. and Knowlton, F. 1975. Determining the relative abundance of coyotes by scent station lines. Wildlife Society Bulletin 3: 119-124.
Lloyd, P. 2007. Predator control, mesopredator release, and impacts on birds nesting success. a field test. African Zoology 42: 180-186.
Luke 2016. http://stat.luke.fi/mets%C3%A4stys-ja-pienriistasaalis-2016_fi
Marchand, M.N. and Litvaitis, J.A. 2004. Effects of landscape composition, habitat features, and nest distribution on predation rate of simulated turtle nests. Biological Conservation 117: 243-251.
Marcström, V., Kenward, R.E. and Engren, E. 1988. The impact of predation on boreal tetraonids during vole cycles. An experimental study. Journal of Animal Ecology 57: 859-872.
Mayfield, H. 1961. Nesting success calculated from exposure. The Wilson Bulletin 73: 255-261.
Meckstroth, A.M. and Miles, K. 2005. Predator removal and nesting waterbird success at San Fransisco bay, California. Waterbirds 28: 250-255.
Medina, F.M., Bonnaud, E., Vidal, E., Tershy, B.R., Zavaleta, E.S., Donlan, C.J., Keitt, B.S., Le Corre, M., Horwath, S.V. and Nogales, M. 2011. A global review of the impacts of invasive cats on island endangered vertebrates. Global Change Biology 17: 3503-3510.
Mikkola-Roos, M. and Yrjölä, R. 2000. Viikki - Helsingin Vanhankaupunginlahden historiaa ja luontoa. Tammi, Helsinki (in Finnish).
Naaber, J. 1974. Rebane ja kährikkoer meie looduses. In: G. Merisalu (ed.). Jaht ja Ulukid. Eesti NSV jahimeeste seltsi aastaraamat 1969–1972: 102-115. Eesti Jahimeeste Selts, Tallinn (in Estonian).
Newsome, T.M., Dellinger, J.A., Pavey, C.R., Ripple, W.J., Shores, C.R., Wirsing, A.J. and Dickman, C.R. 2015. The ecological effects of providing resource subsidies to predators. Global Ecology and Biogeography 24: 1-11.
Nogales, M., Martín, A., Tershy, B.R., Donlan, C.J., Veitch, D., Puerta, N., Wood, B. and Alonso, J. 2004. A review of feral cat eradication on islands. Conservation Biology 18: 310-319.
Nordström, M., Högmander, J., Nummelin, J., Laine, J., Laanetu, N. and Korpimäki, E.
2002. Variable responses of waterfowl breeding populations to long-term removal of
introduced American mink. Ecography 25: 385-394.
Nordström, M., Högmander, J., Laine, J., Nummelin, J., Laanetu, N. and Korpimäki, E.
2003. Effects of feral mink removal on seabirds, waders and passerines on small
islands in the Baltic Sea. Biological Conservation 109: 359-368.
Nordström, M. and Korpimaki, E. 2004. Effects of island isolation and feral mink removal on bird communities on small islands in the Baltic Sea. Journal of Animal Ecology 73: 424-433.
Nummi, P. and Pöysä, H. 1995. Breeding success of ducks in relation to different habitat factors. Ibis 137: 145-150.
Nurmi, J. 2004. Tulokaspetopyyntiä pääkaupunkiseudun lintuvesillä. Metsästäjä 2/2004: 20-24 (in Finnish).
Osara, M. 2002. Pienpetojen metsästys ja luonnonsuojelu. Jahti 2/2002: 4 (in Finnish).
Pirkola, M.K. and Högmander, J. 1974. The age determination of duck broods in the field. Suomen Riista 25: 50-55 (in Finnish with English summary).
Pöysä, H., Wikman, M., Lammi, E. and Väisänen, R.A. 2009. Vesilinnut 2009, runsaus ja poikastuotto. http.//www.rktl.fi/riista/riistavarat/vesilinnut.html (in Finnish). Accessed 4 December 2009.
Russell, J.C. and, Holmes, N.D. 2015. Tropical island conservation. Rat eradication for species recovery. Biological Conservation 185: 1-7.
Salo, P,, Kopimäki, E., Banks, P.B., Nordström, M. and Dickman, C.R. 2007. Alien predators are more dangerous than native predators to prey populations. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 274: 1237-1243.
Seymour, A.S., Harris, S., Ralston, C. and White, P.C.L. 2003. Factors influencing the nesting success of Lapwings Vanellus Vanellus and behaviour of red fox Vulpes vulpes in Lapwings nesting sites. Bird Study 50: 39-46.
Smith, R.K., Pullin, A.S., Stewart, C.B. and Sutherland, W.J. 2010. Effectiveness of Predator Removal for Enhancing Bird Populations. Conservation Biology 24: 820-829.
Sorace, A. and Gustin, M. 2009. Distribution of generalist and specialist predators along urban gradients. Landscape and Urban Planning 90: 111-118.
Tiainen, J., Mikkola-Roos, M., Below, A., Jukarainen, A., Lehikoinen, A., Lehtiniemi, T., Pessa, J., Rajasärkkä, A,, Rintala, J., Sirkiä, P. and Valkama, J. 2016. Suomen lintujen uhanalaisuus 2015 – The 2015 Red List of Finnish Bird Species. http://environment.fi/redlist/2015birdsandmammals
Towns, D.R., Atkinson, I.A.E., Daugherty, C.H. 2006. Have the harmful effects of introduced rats on islands been exaggerated? Biological Invasions 8: 863-891.
Valkama, J., Currie, D. and Korpimäki, E. 1999. Differences in the intensity of nest predation in the Curlew Numenius arquata. A consequence of land use and predator densities? Ecoscience 6: 497-504.
Viksne, J., Nednis, A., Janaus, M. and Stipniece, A. 2005. Changes in the breeding bird fauna, waterbird populations in particular, on lake Engure (Latvia) over the last 50 years. Acta Zoologica Lituanica 15: 188-194.
Väänänen, V-M. 2000. Predation risk associated with nesting in gull colonies by two Aythya species. Observations and an experimental test. Journal of Avian Biology 31: 31-35.
Väänänen, V-M., Pöysä, H. and Runko, P. 2016. Nest and brood stage association between ducks and small colonial gulls in boreal wetlands. Ornis Fennica 93: 55-66.
White, G., Purps, J. and Alsburry, S. 2006. The Bittern in Europe. a guide to species and habitat management. The RSPB, Sandy, Bedfordshire, UK.
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Published
2019-12-31
How to Cite
Nummi, P., Vaananen, V.-M., Pekkarinen, A.-J., Eronen, V., Mikkola-Roos, M., Nurmi, J., Rautiainen, A., & Rusanen, P. (2019). Alien predation in wetlands – the Raccoon Dog and water birds breeding success. Baltic Forestry, 25(2), 228–237. https://doi.org/10.46490/vol25iss2pp228
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Wildlife management
